Hybrid Engine an Example of the Topic Science and Technology Essays by

Hybrid Engine by Expert Prof. Excellence | 20 Dec 2016 Hybrid technology in cars is really not a big thing today. During World War II, submarines ran on diesel engines while cruising at or just below the surface; the diesels charged banks of batteries that propelled the subs underwater, where the diesels are inoperable. Hybrid cars also integrate, through use of computer control, a gasoline engine, a set of batteries, and one or more electric motors. The engine charges the batteries, and the car can be propelled by the gasoline engine alone, the battery-powered electric motor(s), or the two together. Because batteries are charged by the operation of the vehicle, the hybrid does not draw charge from an electrical outlet, an inconvenience of conventional electric vehicles. Need essay sample on "Hybrid Engine" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed The hybrid vehicle concept squeezes miles from gasoline in other ways. The electric motor may grab energy typically squandered as heat in braking to charge the batteries in a concept called regenerative braking. Hybrids can shut down the gasoline motor when idling, for example, at a long stoplight. Hybrids are lightweight and shaped to reduce aerodynamic drag. Some have a more efficient, electronically controlled variable-gearing transmission. Low-drag, stiff tires also increase fuel efficiency, but they may not be best for road adherence in snowy weather. Some of these concepts can and have been used in improving gas mileage in fully gasoline-powered vehicles. For example, Honda's Insight and Civic and Toyota's Prius travel over 50 miles per gallon in freeway use (Cole 36-40). Ford will soon be offering hybrid SUVs; The Escape SUV by ford was recently released in 2004. Ford's 2004 Escape SUV may deliver 40 miles per gallon in city driving (Wechter 17). General Motors offered their hybrid versions of their cars in 2006 when they offered Saturn VUE and later Chevrolet Malibu and Tahoe. Also General Motors distributed around 240 hybrid buses in Seattle. The basic purpose was to reduce the consumption of oil up to 65%. Other than these cities General motors offered Houston, Portland and Philadelphia with the same hybrid bus models (The Daily Herald). Hybrid engines are being considered because of their low contamination levels and quiet operation. These engines operate smoothly, produce high torques at low speed, can tolerate a variety of fuels and exhibit superior cold weather starting performance. Steam generators now available practically eliminate the delayed starting problem which plagued earlier steam vehicles, and are entirely safe. At present, however, they are both bulky and costly. Since no major technical obstacles are foreseen in manufacturing suitable engines, costs no doubt would decline as production increased (Gilles 202). Hybrid technology has been under development for most of the last decade but there is no standard system under the hood of each of these vehicles. Automakers are developing competing and sometimes complementary technologies for hybrid electric vehicle propulsion. One system uses a small gasoline-burning engine that directly drives an alternator to generate electricity. The electricity is stored in batteries or sent to an electric motor which in turn powers the wheels at all times. A second system is configured with two power paths so that the gasoline engine, an electric battery pack or both may be used to produce the motive power to turn the wheels. The gasoline engine also is used to charge and recharge the electric batteries. Under this dual-power or parallel-power system, the vehicle is powered by the electric engine at lower speeds and switches to the gasoline engine for quick acceleration and once it reaches cruising speed. Reducing the total weight of the vehicle is one of the most important factors in achieving greater fuel efficiency. Replacing steel engine and frame components with advanced aluminum, and strategic uses of other materials such as magnesium, carbon fiber and titanium has helped hybrids shave pounds for greater efficiency. Although these types of structural changes have been simultaneously developed and tested alongside hybrids, they will be equally applicable to use in conventional vehicles. (Ruffino 16-18) Some may be concerned that lightweight materials used in hybrids could create safety concerns. Not so, according to Terry Penny All materials on the hybrid vehicles have to meet structural and other performance requirements identical to conventional vehicles." There is one other specific safety issue, says Penny. "Some people worry that in a rescue situation the 'jaws of life' could be electrifying if they cut into the vehicle's high voltage line." But others say that rescuers would be aware of the electric nature of hybrids and act accordingly in an emergency. (Penny 25) Finally, one of the most attractive and intuitively pleasing features of having an electric motor onboard is a function called regenerative braking. As the brakes are applied under normal driving conditions, the HEV captures energy expended to slow the vehicle down. It is then routed to the battery pack, recycled and applied in the passing lane or in climbing that next big hill. In the near term for Ford Vehicles, the likeliest option for the fuel cell vehicle is an onboard converter that plucks hydrogen from natural gas. The technology does produce carbon dioxide emission, however, and its use would lead to questions about the possible security risks of an expanded role for natural gas. An added concern is the expansion of pipeline infrastructure for delivery of great quantities of natural gas. (Arnold 17) For at least the next decade fuel cells unless their hydrogen is supplied through nuclear power, will not replace fossil fuels without major environmental and economic impact. Costly hybrid vehicles offered by Ford and General Motors may make transportation less affordable for fixed- and low-income households; subsidies for the vehicles would have economic costs and could even undermine petroleum conservation efforts. Petroleum seems to be indispensable to prosperity, health, welfare, and a clean environment. Even as petroleum use has increased dramatically, the emissions of six important (criteria) pollutants monitored by the EPA have declined. Technological advances have continued to deliver greater economic output per amount of energy used. Technology may make reductions in carbon dioxide emission affordable. The National Academy of Engineering ranks the electrification of the United States as the greatest engineering achievement of the twentieth century. Following electrification are the automobile and airplane, energy-using achievements that have helped to generate prosperity. Those great achievements were made possible by fossil fuels, especially petroleum, as the largest share of energy supply for the United States and the world. The debt owed to petroleum is immense, as it has reduced the coarseness of nature and contributed much to the blossoming of humanity. Works Cited Leon, Monroe Cole. Tomorrow's Transportation: New Systems for the Urban Future. United States. Urban Transportation Administration. U.S. Government Printing Office. Place of Washington, DC. 1998. Wechter, Arnold. Ford Escape to Feature New Platform, Hybrid Engine. The Washington Times. 2000. 17. Daily Herald. General Motors Plugs into Hybrid Vehicles. Publication Date: November 28, 2005. 1. Ruffino, Norma Carr. The Hybrid Phenomenon: High Gas Prices and Shifting Consumer Sentiment Point to Bright Prospects for Hybrid Cars. The Futurist. Volume: 41. Issue: 4. 2007. 16. Gilles, Tim. Automobiles/ Maintenance and repair. Thomson Delmar Learning. 2003. 202-204 Penny, Terry. Low Grade Heat Power Cycles. Amer Solar Energy Society. 1985. 25-27. Miller, John. Propulsion Systems for Hybrid Vehicles. Institution of Electrical Engineers. 125-128

A Tale of Two Homes Professor Ramos Blog

A Tale of Two Homes SOURCE Not so long ago, I used to have two places I called home. No, my parents weren’t in a custody battle. No, we didn’t have some distant vacation home that we visited twice a year. And no, I was not in the foster care system growing up. Right about now, you are wondering what the hell am I talking about? The second home in question that I am about to mention involves a building filled with endless texts of fiction from awesome adventures to fantasy worlds and fairy tales to comedies and thrillers as well as non-fiction. This could include books about recorded events in history, biographies, textbooks, encyclopedias or anything else you could possibly begin to imagine! Well, obviously now you know that I am clearly talking about a library. This was and truly still is, my second home no matter how old I get. I remember the very first library I walked into as if it were just yesterday. A quaint little hole in the wall next to my childhood home. Just thinking about it sends me into a trance. I can even remember that specific smell of books from new to ancient. The sweet sound of fresh paperbacks being cracked open for the first time in their existence along with the chorus of constant pages turning in anticipation of what is to come next. I relive my whole adolescence again in just the blink of an eye. So you might be asking yourself, â€Å"well†¦.why did it feel like your second home?† This is where I found my first love. READING! For not only did I learn how to read here but learned that books held the power of imagination. My mother was the one who brought me here day after day just to teach me how to read. Now to anyone who has met my mother, they would know that it seems a tad farfetched for her to read all the time. I can hear you saying â€Å"What are you talking about† right about now. Well, she must wear glasses that are  ½ an inch thick. So medically, she is considered legally blind. Yes, you read that right. LEGALLY BLIND. How can one love to read so much even though it is so physically hard to see? That is because no matter what you are reading, it can take you away from this physical world into one that is completely imaginary! Where the story appears to fly right off the pages and into a homemade movie playing inside your head that you can change in real time. Even though it felt normal at the time, each and every day my mom would ask me, â€Å"Would you like to walk to the library again today?† and of course I would just scream enthusiastically â€Å"YES!!!!! Please, please, please!† as I jumped up and down and around the house. Almost as if I was bouncing off the walls before we finally departed on our journey. It was pure love at first fight. So off we went, just like any other day to my second home to find more books that she could read to me. By constantly reading to me, she knew it was only a matter of time before I wanted to do it on my own. So eventually, I got taught the ABC’s and how to read before I even got the chance to learn it in school!! This is when my whole life changed as if someone had just flipped on a light in a dimly lit room. Thankfully, my mother was always right by my side helping me along each step of the way. I went through all the stages. Joy, sadness, appreciation, frustration and gratitude. The immense joy of finally being able to read a whole book by myself. The overwhelming sadness when I found out that libraries were closed on Sunday. The endless appreciation I had for each and every word. The unwelcomed frustration of not being able to pronounce simple words. Words like; through, together, friends and anymore. Yet it was through those stages that the final one appeared. As if it were the warm sun coming up from the cool night. Gratitude. Gratitude for my mother, for the library, for the books, for all the words and lastly for the lifelong lessons learned from the morals of each story. Through the thick and the thin, she was there to make sure that I would win in every battle against the mighty book. Making me feel like a gladiator using the books as my shield when the words came at me like a li on ready to pounce. It’s all thanks to my mom who would keep me busy with reading a different book each and every day of my childhood. Always guiding me in where to find all types of books from A-Z that I wanted to read and conquer next. By first grade it was just more than second nature. It was a way of life for me. It has even followed me all the way through college. So not only has it helped me as a child but it still continues to show me the way when I feel lost. The vast knowledge inside the covers of a book not only shows you something about the author but it also shows you something about yourself. The library will always be like my second home and reading will always be my true love. If you are ever looking for me, chances are, I AM AT THE LIBRARY!

To What Extent are Tutors and Students Responsible for the Learning Essay

To What Extent are Tutors and Students Responsible for the Learning Experience in Higher Education - Essay Example Many experiments have been done on the same and several critics have given the drawbacks and necessary steps that need to overcome them to have a better learning experience. On keeping this as a starting note, it is high time that equal importance is given to students and their learning experience at a higher education level. The primary factor that determines the scale of the learning experience of every student is their boredom factor. So, in order to identify the extent to which the students and teachers are responsible for the learning experience in higher education, an analysis has to be made with boredom as a critical factor.( Mann & Robinson 2009) To give a brief explanation of what boredom is, it can be attributed to person's state of mind when he has nothing to do that he likes. On an analysis on what causes boredom among students which in turn leads them to have a bad learning experience, it was found out that the teaching techniques of the lectures and the methods they fol low to be the primary reason. Some of the teaching methods followed by teachers evoke a passive environment of learning. Also, a one-way relationship between teachers and students could also lead to a dip in their learning curve. On the other side, a student's individual interest also plays a part on the grade one earns in learning. (Gjesne 1977) If the student is not open towards learning new things, irrespective of whatever the teacher presents. Then, the student is at the receiving end for all the blames of having a lean learning experience. Hence a cognitive analysis is required on both sides to determine the extent of impact on learning experience. ( Mann & Robinson 2009) Teachers' effect on learning experience The main teaching method that is followed in most of the universities is converting text to computer PowerPoint presentations and presenting them. Although studies have shown that these methods have improved the learning outcomes of students, there have been cases where it has had a negative impact on students. Hence a factual study of whether these presentations have improved the learning outcomes have not been provided yet.

Electronic Waste Management Approaches Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Electronic Waste Management Approaches - Essay Example The disposal of electronic waste affects the health of humans in two ways. First, one can get contaminated through the food chain. Secondly, direct exposure to workers carrying out the duties at the disposal site. Since the discovery of toxic substance in electronic waste, there has been inadequate laws all over the world governing effective management of electronic waste. This has exposed the environment to risks. Large quantities of electronic waste are majorly recycled in developing nations. The number of landfills has been on the rise in both developing and developed countries. Presently there is extensive research on electronic waste management in order to minimize the problems, both at the international as well as the national levels. Research involves sorting components that could be precious metals and those that can be recycled. Several tools such as LCA, MCA, MFA and EPR approach can greatly improve most of the problems related electronic waste. Studies conducted using LCA in various countries indicate that, recycling is the most recommended plot for managing electronic waste. Finally to mitigate the electronic waste, its the role of every citizen to take responsibility in matters related disposal of electronic

Report project for PepsiCo, INC Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Report project for PepsiCo, INC - Research Paper Example The company charged a depreciation expense of $ 1,500 million for the year ended December 26, 2009 on its property, plant and equipment while the depreciation charge for the year ended 2009 and 2007 was $ 1,422 million and $ 1,304 million respectively. These amounts do not include the amortization expense which is charged separately. The current ratio of the company gives an overview of the liquidity conditions of the company and is calculated as a proportion of the current assets of the company over the current liabilities of the company and is represented as a ratio. This ratio of the company expresses the sales that the company has generated through the use of the assets of the company and is computed by division of the revenue of the company with the total assets. This shows the efficiency of the company with respect to its assets. This ratio determines the proportions of the company debts over the availability of its equity in order to assess the company’s going concern and the performance of the company in the long-term with its reliance on debt as compared to equity. The company has a favorable working capital and liquidity ratio as the company has enough working capital as a surplus over its current liabilities to expand its business as well as a current ratio of 1.44 represents that the company is well off when it comes to meeting its short-term obligations as well as other needs. The authorized share capital of the company as at December 26, 2009 is 3,600 million shares while the company has issued 1,782 million shares to public and other stakeholders of the company as at December 26, 2009. The dividend payout ratio of the company for the year was 46.58% as company declared a dividend of $1.775 per common share compared to an EPS of $3.81 for the year 2009. This indicates that the company has distributed almost half of its profits to the common shareholders. The net cash utilized by the company for its

Misuse Of Opiates Health And Social Care Essay

Misuse Of Opiates Health And Social Care Essay The misuse and abuse of illicit and prescription opiates is a growing problem in the United States. Even though Americans make up less than 5 percent of the worlds population, we consume close to 100% of the worlds supply of hydrocodone and nearly 80% of the worlds supply of legal and illegal opiates . Because of the vast availability of drugs and its impact on many facets of healthcare and the economy, it is imperative that health care providers and policy makers understand what drugs are being abused, who uses these drugs, where the drugs come from, and the health and economic burden on the United States. It is becoming exceedingly important for those directly involved with substance abusers to understand the physiological consequences, psychosocial consequences and withdrawal consequences of drugs. Opiates and opiate derivatives in particular, whether illicit (such as heroin) or prescription (such as Oxycontin) are being heavily abused across the country. These drugs can have serious health implications during use and during abrupt cessation (detoxification or withdrawal). This paper will present a review of the literature on the epidemic of heroin and prescription opiate abuse. Through a critical review, concepts such as the prevalence of the problem, the physiologic consequences of abuse, the current trends in management of the problem and implications for nursing and healthcare will be explored. Background Before proceeding, it is important to briefly discuss the basic pharmacology of opiate drugs. Opiates, otherwise known as narcotics, include the drugs heroin, morphine, codeine, oxycontin, hydrocodone, methadone and other chemically-related derivatives. All opiates are considered dispensable only by prescription in the United States with the exception of heroin, which is illegal in all circumstances. Opiates wield their effects by activating pleasure centers in the brain. The neurobiochemical model of addiction suggests that over time, the brains chemistry changes so that it yearns for the substance when it is not there and can produce physiologic effects of withdrawal when stopped. Heroin for example, which is chemically-related to morphine (the chemical name for heroin is diamorphine) readily crosses the blood-brain barrier to cause a rapid spilling of dopamine into the dopaminergic receptors of the brains neurons. For this reason, the drug is easily addictive and absence of the dr ug causes a sensation of craving and can cause feelings of illness, such as nausea and diarrhea, when stopped abruptly. . Prevalence of the Problem Several researchers in the nursing, allied health and economics disciplines have explored and discussed the prevalence of prescription opiate abuse and hypotheses of the origin of the problem. However, there is a large gap in the literature related to the prevalence of illicit drug abuse (heroin) among different populations. The prevalence data for heroin abuse in the US is largely reported by national survey trends, such as the National Institute of Drug Abuse (part of the National Institutes of Health) Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH). Even so, the massive survey document pays little attention to the problem of heroin abuse and reports only two percent of the 67,500 survey respondents using heroin in the month preceding the survey (National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2009). The etiology of prescription drug misuse and abuse is discussed more heavily in the literature than is heroin abuse. According to the NSDUH, in 2009 4.8% of the survey respondents aged 12 and older reported using prescription opiates for non-medical reasons. Of those, over 55% reported obtaining the drug for free from a friend or relative, and 4.8% reported purchasing the drug from a dealer on the streets (National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2009). Researchers at Columbia University surveyed adolescents aged 12 to 17 in 2005 and found that 9.3% reported the misuse of prescription opiates over the past month. In exploring the adolescents motives for abuse, the researchers found that the most commonly reported motives were ease of attainment and affordability . Among young adult college students, prevalence of non-medical prescription opiate abuse has been reported between seven and nine percent in the past month to twelve to fourteen percent lifetime prevalence . One of the most at-risk groups for misuse of and addiction to prescription opiates is the chronic pain population. When used appropriately, opiate pain medications are a gold standard of care for serious pain-related conditions (such as post-operative pain, neuropathic pain and so on). In an effort to better manage pain, the number of prescriptions for opiate medications increased 154% in the ten-year period from 1992 to 2002, even though the population of the United States increased by only 13% . Although prescription opiates have been used to treat pain and improve the quality of life among acute and chronic pain patients, the advent of the drugs misuse has led to a wide body of literature on prescriptive practices and monitoring of opiate drugs. There delicate balance between managing pain adequately and the risk for misuse, addiction and diversion has been discussed in the literature recently, largely among the adolescent/young adult and chronic pain populations. Although there is a general lack in the literature of the number of people prescribed opiates for chronic pain . There is a large body of literature which suggests that the increased number of prescription opiates for chronic pain patients has contributed significantly to the drug abuse problem. In studies to investigate the use of prescription opiates for chronic pain, it has been found that pain treatment plans are sparse, good documentation on the patients health history and history of substance abuse is rare, and opiates are sometimes improperly utilized or not indicated at all . Health Consequences of Opiate Abuse Both prescription and illicit opiates have the potential to exert a myriad of acute and chronic negative health effects for the user. Neurological decline, vision changes, cardiac abnormalities, vascular complications, pulmonary disorders and mortality have been studied and reported. In a study of over 500 opiate addicts, electrocardiographic changes were documented in 61% of the sample. These ECG changes included ST-segment elevation, which may indicate ischemic heart damage (or lack of oxygen-rich blood to the myocardium) and QTc prolongation (seen mostly with methadone addicts). Prolonged QTc intervals may lead to inappropriate triggering of the ventricles and may lead to potentially lethal ventricular tachycardia . The use of heroin and other drugs by injection with non-sterile or reused needles may produce powerful toxins in the bloodstream leading to endocarditis, left ventricular hemorrhage and death. Researchers in Ireland reviewed the autopsy findings from eight cases of heroin users and found rapid fatal illness caused by the endotoxin Clostridium novyi which caused fatal subendocardial hemorrhage, spleen enlargement and pulmonary edema in all of the subjects studied . Heroin can cause significant acute peripheral and central nervous system complications such as neuropathy and hearing loss. In a study six of intravenous and intranasal heroin users admitted to the hospital for acute illness, five had documented rhabdomyolysis between three and 36 hours after administration of the drug. In each of the five cases, there was no documented trauma. Typically rhabdomyolysis occurs after a traumatic, compression-type injury where enzymes spill into the musculature and cause rapid neurological decline, loss of muscle tone and coma. In each of the subjects studied, no trauma or compression injury occurred . In a group of patients with a reported history of speedballing (or mixing heroin and cocaine), 2 of the 16 studied experienced sudden, bilateral sensorineural hearing loss four hours after speedballing which resolved within three days. One additional participant experienced sudden hearing loss after speedballing but unilaterally. The mechanism by which th e hearing loss occurred was described as a possible cochlear toxicity or autoimmune reaction related directly to the drugs . Injection of drugs of any type can cause vascular complications, skin and soft tissue infections and infectious diseases such as hepatitis and HIV . In the most severe cases, opiate abuse may lead to death, generally from overdose. Heroin has been related to 1.65 deaths per 100,000 people in the Florida population alone over the last decade and in Alabama between 1986 and 2003, a review of medical examiners reports revealed those whos cause of sudden death was undermined were 5.3 times more likely to have a history of drug abuse . Researchers in the United Kingdom have further investigated heroin deaths and concluded that overdose related to heroin rarely occurs after the use of heroin alone- in 50% of the cases they reviewed, alcohol was also involved . Although studies have been published on the health effects of abuse itself, a review of nursing, medical and allied health literature shows a significant lack of studies on the health consequences of withdrawal (abrupt cessation) of opiate drugs. Several studies have been found relating to the use of pharmacotherapy to treat opiate addiction (such as methadone and similar programs) but no studies have explored the physiologic effects of withdrawal without medication assistance. Searching online databases for relevant articles on opiate withdrawal does not yield any studies other than those using medication-assisted withdrawal therapies (such as methadone and buprenorphine). This is important to populations such as inmates in a correctional facility where pharmacotherapy is not generally used during detoxification and requires further attention . In sum, the potential health-related consequences of opiate abuse can negatively affect a myriad of body systems. The risk of potentially fatal infectious disease, neurological and cardiovascular complications and death by overdose creates a public health problem that demands attention. Health care providers in all arenas must be able to rapidly and appropriately identify those at risk. Implications for Advanced Nursing Practice Nurse practitioners are allowed prescriptive authority in almost any state across the country. Depending on the practice setting, they may prescribe opiates to treat pain. Opiates are the gold standard for treating moderate to severe pain in both acute and chronic pain syndromes . There has been some discourse in the literature on the dilemma to treat or not to treat pain with opiates. On the one hand, effective pain management is not only ethical but also opiates are effective for many patients for pain management and on the other hand there is a fear of misuse, dependence and addiction issues . The ability for advanced practice nurses to identify drug-seeking behavior, issues with addiction and possible diversion of opiates is crucial to the problem of opiate abuse. As it has been documented in the literature, diversion of prescription opiates generally occurs with the patient selling, trading or giving away the medication to another. According to Annie Gerhardt, emergency room nu rse practitioner, drug seekers become victims of their own disease, becoming involved in a tangled web of addiction, drug-seeking, drug diversion and criminal behavior that escalates over time with increased drug use . Gerhardt (2004) suggests monitoring patients treated with opiates for refilling meds before their follow up appointments, patient reports of losing medications, attempting to see different providers for pain medications (which can usually be identified by pharmacies), and scamming providers for more medications by complimenting the provider or the office staff or displaying increased levels of pain in order to procure more medication. When prescribing opiates to treat pain in patients already known to have addiction issues, using sustained-released formulations may reduce dependency while adequately treating pain. Sustained-release formulations usually have a reduced street value and are less likely to be sold and diverted, and the withdrawal from sustained-release op iates is typically not as severe . In terms of advanced practice nursing, prescribers have the unique ability to screen for potential addiction issues, monitor those who are prescribed addictive medications and potentially control diversion of those medications to others for whom they are not prescribed. Ultimately, the knowledge of drugs of abuse and health-related consequences is important for nurses at all levels to possess. Implications for Research To further add to the body of literature on the subject of opiate drug abuse, addiction and withdrawal, several areas still need to be explored. First, patterns of drug use in individual populations and communities should be investigated. The types of drugs most commonly used, the routes of administration of these drugs and their negative health-related consequences should be studied in a variety of communities, both urban and rural, to gain a better understanding of the patterns of use across the country. More research is needed beyond simple prevalence studies on the number of people who use to expand on the actual patterns of abuse. Similarly, the psychosocial consequence of drug use across different populations needs further investigation in order to articulate the negative impact on individuals and communities. Because the abrupt cessation of opiate drugs without medication assistance occurs frequently in specific settings, more research needs to be done on the physiological effects of non-assisted detoxification. The patterns of symptoms of withdrawal and negative health effects among populations such as the incarcerated and the hospitalized need to be explored. The potential for the development of evidence-based protocols for the management of abuse and withdrawal in these settings can occur once the patterns of symptoms and health consequences are documented. Conclusion In sum, the problem of drug abuse (which extends far beyond even opiate drugs) has been reported in multiple sources, and prevalence studies seem rampant in the literature. However, much more work needs to be done on the consequences of drug abuse from a healthcare perspective across a variety of populations in different settings to begin to understand the impact of drugs on communities.

What Anti-Individualists Cannot Know A Priori :: Philosophy Philosophical Essays

What Anti-Individualists Cannot Know A Priori ABSTRACT: The attempt to hold both anti-individualism and privileged self-knowledge may have the absurd consequence that someone could know a priori propositions that are knowable only empirically. This would be so if such an attempt entailed that one could know a priori both the contents of one’s own thoughts and the anti-individualistic entailments from those thought-contents to the world. For then one could also come to know a priori (by simple deduction) the empirical conditions entailed by one’s thoughts. But I argue that there is no construal of a priori knowledge that could be used to raise an incompatibility problem of this sort. First, I suggest that the incompatibilist a priori must be a stipulative one, since in none of the main philosophical traditions does knowledge of the contents of one’s thoughts count as a priori. Then, I show that under various possible construals of a priori, the incompatibilist argument would be invalid: either a fallacy of eq uivocation or an argument without a plausible closure principle guaranteeing transmission of epistemic status from premises to conclusion. Finally, I maintain that the only possible construal of the property of being knowable a priori that avoids invalidity is one that fails to generate the intended reductio. I Compatibilism, or the attempt to hold both Burgean anti-individualism and common intuitions about privileged self-knowledge, appears to entail that a person (say, Oscar) could come to know a priori the premises of arguments of this sort: B 1. If I am now thinking that water is wet, then water exists. 2. I am now thinking that water is wet. Therefore, 3. Water exists. Naturally, from such premises Oscar could come to know a priori that water exists (i.e., by simple deduction) — yet nobody can know that a priori! Some take this to be a reductio of compatibilism (call them "incompatibilists"). But I shall suggest how anti-individualists could retain common intuitions about self-knowledge, without fearing that their views would entail unacceptable claims about the epistemic status of empirical propositions. First I shall ask why incompatibilists hold that, given both anti-individualism and privileged self-knowledge, each premise of inferences such as (B) are knowable a priori. I shall then argue that there is no plausible construal of "a priori" that could be used to generate the alleged reductio. II First, consider (B)'s second premise: could Oscar come to know a priori the proposition that he is thinking that water is wet, according to the criteria for "a priori" knowledge in the main philosophical traditions that invoke knowledge of this sort?